Off-grid comfort. Wood, coal and oil heating in French cities in the 20th century

In 20th century, in France, domestic heating was changed by network energies (gas and electricity), but also by the development of other technologies which allowed the centralisation of heat and its distribution in houses. In discourses, domestic comfort had to be supported by these technical networks and gas, electricity and district heating were presented as symbols of progress to replace individual heating methods. However, these networks (energy and heat) did not replace other forms of heating: fireplace, stove, cooker, radiators and individual central heating appliances continued throughout the century, embodying thermal comfort as much as the devices connected to the network. This article shows how these devices were maintained in French cities. It emphasises the role of everyday practices and companies that slowed down the development of networked heating.